In SQL, constraints can be specified for tables. Constraints enforce certain properties over data that is inserted into a table. Constraints can be specified along with the schema of the table as part of the CREATE TABLE statement. In certain cases, constraints can also be added to a table using the ALTER TABLE statement, but this is not currently supported for all constraints.

Warning Constraints have a strong impact on performance: they slow down loading and updates but speed up certain queries. Please consult the Performance Guide for details.

Syntax

Check Constraint

Check constraints allow you to specify an arbitrary Boolean expression. Any columns that do not satisfy this expression violate the constraint. For example, we could enforce that the name column does not contain spaces using the following CHECK constraint.

CREATE TABLE students (name VARCHAR CHECK (NOT contains(name, ' ')));
INSERT INTO students VALUES ('this name contains spaces');

Constraint Error: CHECK constraint failed: students

Not Null Constraint

A not-null constraint specifies that the column cannot contain any NULL values. By default, all columns in tables are nullable. Adding NOT NULL to a column definition enforces that a column cannot contain NULL values.

CREATE TABLE students (name VARCHAR NOT NULL);
INSERT INTO students VALUES (NULL);

Constraint Error: NOT NULL constraint failed: students.name

Primary Key and Unique Constraint

Primary key or unique constraints define a column, or set of columns, that are a unique identifier for a row in the table. The constraint enforces that the specified columns are unique within a table, i.e., that at most one row contains the given values for the set of columns.

CREATE TABLE students (id INTEGER PRIMARY KEY, name VARCHAR);
INSERT INTO students VALUES (1, 'Student 1');
INSERT INTO students VALUES (1, 'Student 2');

Constraint Error: Duplicate key "id: 1" violates primary key constraint

CREATE TABLE students (id INTEGER, name VARCHAR, PRIMARY KEY (id, name));
INSERT INTO students VALUES (1, 'Student 1');
INSERT INTO students VALUES (1, 'Student 2');
INSERT INTO students VALUES (1, 'Student 1');

Constraint Error: Duplicate key "id: 1, name: Student 1" violates primary key constraint

In order to enforce this property efficiently, an ART index is automatically created for every primary key or unique constraint that is defined in the table.

Primary key constraints and unique constraints are identical except for two points:

• A table can only have one primary key constraint defined, but many unique constraints
• A primary key constraint also enforces the keys to not be NULL.

CREATE TABLE students(id INTEGER PRIMARY KEY, name VARCHAR, email VARCHAR UNIQUE);
INSERT INTO students VALUES (1, 'Student 1', '[email protected]');
INSERT INTO students values (2, 'Student 2', '[email protected]');

Constraint Error: Duplicate key "email: [email protected]" violates unique constraint.

INSERT INTO students(id, name) VALUES (3, 'Student 3');
INSERT INTO students(name, email) VALUES ('Student 3', '[email protected]');

Constraint Error: NOT NULL constraint failed: students.id

Warning Indexes have certain limitations that might result in constraints being evaluated too eagerly, leading to constraint errors such as violates primary key constraint and violates unique constraint. See the indexes section for more details.

Foreign Keys

Foreign keys define a column, or set of columns, that refer to a primary key or unique constraint from another table. The constraint enforces that the key exists in the other table.

CREATE TABLE students (id INTEGER PRIMARY KEY, name VARCHAR);
CREATE TABLE subjects (id INTEGER PRIMARY KEY, name VARCHAR);
CREATE TABLE exams (
    exam_id INTEGER PRIMARY KEY,
    subject_id INTEGER REFERENCES subjects(id),
    student_id INTEGER REFERENCES students(id),
    grade INTEGER
);
INSERT INTO students VALUES (1, 'Student 1');
INSERT INTO subjects VALUES (1, 'CS 101');
INSERT INTO exams VALUES (1, 1, 1, 10);
INSERT INTO exams VALUES (2, 1, 2, 10);

Constraint Error: Violates foreign key constraint because key "id: 2" does not exist in the referenced table

In order to enforce this property efficiently, an ART index is automatically created for every foreign key constraint that is defined in the table.

Warning Indexes have certain limitations that might result in constraints being evaluated too eagerly, leading to constraint errors such as violates primary key constraint and violates unique constraint. See the indexes section for more details.